Medical book Archive
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6 July 2026DFA2 in Parameters
DFA alpha2: long-term fractal correlations of heart rate.
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9 October 2024140 SI Shock index in Parameters
Shock index (heart rate / systolic pressure): normal range, the 0.9 threshold, causes and limitations.
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9 October 202433 Lactic acid in Parameters
Lactate: normal level, hyperlactataemia and lactic acidosis, types A and B, and its role in sepsis and shock.
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30 July 202443 Glycogen. in Parameters
Glycogen: glucose storage in liver and muscle, hormonal control, diabetes, hypoglycaemia and glycogen storage diseases.
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14 May 2024139 Actual blood supply index (IK) in Parameters
Actual blood supply index (Starr formula): calculation, age-dependent reference values and interpretation.
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13 May 202421 Energy Expenditure in Parameters
Energy expenditure: resting value per kilogram, METs, physical activity level and reference measurement methods.
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13 May 202436-37 β-lipoprotein in Parameters
Beta-lipoproteins and apolipoprotein B: counting atherogenic particles, ESC/EAS apoB targets and older test methods.
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13 May 202439 Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) in Parameters
VLDL: triglyceride-rich lipoproteins from the liver, how VLDL cholesterol is estimated, remnant cholesterol and risk.
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13 May 202442 Glucose in Parameters
Blood glucose: normal fasting values, prediabetes and diabetes criteria (ADA), hypoglycaemia and emergency signs.
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12 May 2024126 Transferrin (TFN) in Parameters
Transferrin: iron transport protein, reference range, transferrin saturation, iron deficiency and overload.
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12 May 2024127 Urine specific gravity (USG) in Parameters
Urine specific gravity: normal range 1.005–1.030, dilute and concentrated urine and their causes.
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12 May 2024128 Chloride (Cl) in Parameters
Chloride: normal about 98–107 mmol/L; role in acid–base balance, anion gap, causes of high and low chloride.
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12 May 2024129 Ceruloplasmin (CP) in Parameters
Ceruloplasmin: copper-carrying protein, Wilson disease diagnostic thresholds and other causes of abnormal values.
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12 May 2024130 Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in Parameters
Alkaline phosphatase: liver or bone origin, causes of high and low ALP, role of GGT.
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12 May 2024131 Intracranial pressure (ICP) in Parameters
Intracranial pressure: normal range, cerebral perfusion pressure, treatment thresholds and causes of raised ICP.
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12 May 202434 Urea in Parameters
Urea: end product of protein metabolism; kidney, pre-renal and dietary causes of high urea, and low urea.
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12 May 2024133 Serum albumin (ALB) in Parameters
Serum albumin: functions, causes of low albumin (liver, kidney, inflammation, nutrition) and prognostic meaning.
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12 May 2024134 Serum globulin (GLB) in Parameters
Serum globulins: immunoglobulins and other fractions, polyclonal vs monoclonal increase, antibody deficiency.
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9 May 202410, 11 Beginning of clotting, End of clotting in Parameters
Whole-blood clotting time (Lee–White): beginning and end of clotting, normal range, causes and limitations.
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9 May 202414 Magnesium (Mg) in Parameters
Magnesium: normal 0.70–1.05 mmol/L; causes of deficiency (PPIs, diuretics, alcohol), links with potassium, calcium and arrhythmia.
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9 May 202417 pH of gastric juice in Parameters
Gastric juice pH: fasting values, effect of meals, high and low acidity and their consequences.
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9 May 2024123 Color index of blood in Parameters
Colour index of blood (conventional norm 0.85–1.05): hypo- and hyperchromic anaemias and its relation to MCH.
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9 May 202418 pH of blood in Parameters
Blood pH: normal range 7.35–7.45, bicarbonate buffer and the four primary acid–base disorders.
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9 May 2024125 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in Parameters
BUN: blood urea nitrogen, conversion to urea, BUN/creatinine ratio and causes of abnormal values.
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8 May 2024110 Interval PR in Parameters
PR interval: normal 120–200 ms, first-degree and Wenckebach AV block, short PR and WPW pattern.
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8 May 2024111 Interval QT in Parameters
QT interval: heart-rate correction, normal and prolonged QTc, causes of long and short QT and torsade risk.
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8 May 2024112 Interval QRS in Parameters
QRS complex: ventricular depolarisation, normal width, bundle branch blocks and other causes of a wide QRS.
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8 May 2024113 Left ventricular Stroke Work Index (LVSWI) in Parameters
Left ventricular stroke work index: formula, commonly quoted range and its prognostic value in cardiogenic shock.
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8 May 20245,9 Segmented and Band neutrophiles in Parameters
Segmented and band neutrophils — first defence against bacteria, left shift, neutrophilia and grades of neutropenia.
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8 May 20246-Erythrocyte sedimentation rate ESR in Parameters
ESR — non-specific inflammation marker: age-adjusted limits, causes of high and low values, ESR versus CRP.
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8 May 2024116 Width of the third ventricle of cerebrum (TVW) in Parameters
Width of the third ventricle: measurement by ultrasound, conventional range, hydrocephalus and brain atrophy.
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8 May 2024117 Cardiac work (CW) in Parameters
Cardiac work and cardiac power output: formula, typical resting value and the 0.53 W threshold in cardiogenic shock.
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8 May 2024119 Estimated creatinine clearance rate (eClCr) in Parameters
Creatinine clearance (Cockcroft–Gault): formula, use for drug dosing, strengths and limitations.
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7 May 2024107 Rate of CO2 production in Parameters
Rate of CO₂ production: metabolic origin, respiratory quotient and importance in ventilated patients and nutrition.
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7 May 2024108 Vascular Permeability Index in Parameters
Vascular permeability index: Starling forces, glycocalyx, pulmonary permeability index and causes of oedema.
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7 May 2024109 Stroke volume (SV) in Parameters
Stroke volume: normal values, preload, afterload and contractility, measurement methods and causes of changes.
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7 May 2024118 eGFR MDRD in Parameters
eGFR (MDRD): how kidney filtration is estimated from creatinine, KDIGO GFR categories, limitations and why GFR matters.
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6 May 2024100 Oxygen consumption per kg of body weight or metabolic equivalent (MET) in Parameters
Oxygen consumption per kg and METs: definition, activity intensity and fitness as a predictor of mortality.
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6 May 2024101 O2 consumption (VO2) in Parameters
Oxygen consumption (VO₂): resting value, VO₂max, the Fick principle and clinical significance.
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6 May 2024102 Myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) in Parameters
Myocardial oxygen consumption: heart rate, wall tension and contractility, supply–demand balance and angina.
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6 May 2024103 Oxygen extraction index (O2ER) in Parameters
Oxygen extraction ratio: normal values, high and low extraction and their meaning in shock and sepsis.
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6 May 2024104 CO2 elimination (VCO2) in Parameters
CO₂ elimination (VCO₂): resting value, exercise testing, anaerobic threshold and ventilatory efficiency.
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6 May 2024105 CO2 in arterial blood in Parameters
Arterial CO₂ (PaCO₂): normal range, hypocapnia and hypercapnia, and the link with ventilation.
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6 May 2024106 CO2 venous blood in Parameters
Venous CO₂: typical values, agreement with arterial values and the venous–arterial CO₂ gap.
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5 May 202495 Time of single load in Parameters
Time of single load: recovery after exercise and heart rate recovery as a prognostic marker.
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5 May 202496 Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) in Parameters
Respiratory exchange ratio: fuel use, maximal effort in exercise testing and nutrition in intensive care.
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5 May 202497 Transportation of oxygen(DO2) in Parameters
Oxygen delivery (DO₂): formula, normal values, the oxygen delivery chain and causes of reduced delivery.
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5 May 202498 Quantity of assimilated oxygen on 100 gr. of cerebral tissue in Parameters
Cerebral oxygen consumption per 100 g: brain metabolism, measurement and causes of low and high values.
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5 May 202499 Oxygen saturation in arterial blood (SaO2) in Parameters
Arterial oxygen saturation: target ranges, pulse oximetry limitations and causes of hypoxaemia.
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2 May 202490 Minute ventilation (VE) in Parameters
Minute ventilation: tidal volume × rate, resting values, hypoventilation and hyperventilation.
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2 May 202491 Functional residual capacity (FRC) in Parameters
Functional residual capacity: lung volume after normal expiration, measurement, hyperinflation and restriction.
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2 May 202492 Peak expiratory flow (PEF) in Parameters
Peak expiratory flow: measurement technique, personal best and asthma action plan zones.
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2 May 202493 Test Tiffeneau in Parameters
Tiffeneau index (FEV1/FVC): airflow obstruction, lower limit of normal versus the GOLD 0.70 ratio.
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2 May 202494 Working rate of oxygen consumption in Parameters
Working rate of oxygen consumption: dependence on oxygenation, haemoglobin and thyroid hormones.
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1 May 202431 Creatinine in Parameters
Creatinine: the main blood test of kidney function, reference values, causes of high and low levels, acute kidney injury.
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1 May 202432 Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) in Parameters
Dopamine β-hydroxylase: enzyme forming noradrenaline, marker of sympathetic activity and DBH deficiency.
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1 May 202478 Pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) in Parameters
Pulmonary vascular resistance: formula, the 2 Wood unit limit, pulmonary hypertension and right heart catheterisation.
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1 May 202479 Central venous pressure. in Parameters
Central venous pressure: typical values, measurement, causes of low and high CVP and its limits as a fluid guide.
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1 May 202480 Time of systemic circulation in Parameters
Systemic circulation time: mean transit time through the body, indicator dilution and causes of faster or slower circulation.
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1 May 202481 Time of pulmonary circulation in Parameters
Pulmonary circulation time: transit of blood through the lungs, how it is measured and what prolongs or shortens it.
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1 May 202482 Autoregulation of Cerebral Blood in Parameters
Cerebral blood flow per 100 g: normal value, autoregulation, CO₂ reactivity and ischaemic thresholds.
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1 May 202483, 84 Blood flow per 1gr of thyroid gland, Blood flow per 1gr of cerebral tissue in Parameters
Blood flow per gram of thyroid and brain tissue: perfusion intensity, Graves disease and the effects of thyroid hormones.
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1 May 202449 Thyroxine (T4),Total in Parameters
Total thyroxine (T4): thyroid hormone action, reference range, binding proteins and signs of hypo- and hyperthyroidism.
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1 May 202485 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure in Parameters
Cerebrospinal fluid pressure: CSF production, lumbar opening pressure, causes of raised and low pressure.
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1 May 202447 Testosterone in Parameters
Testosterone: functions, morning reference range in men, causes of low and high levels and how it is measured.
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1 May 202448 Total estrogen. in Parameters
Oestrogens: estradiol, estrone and estriol, changes during the menstrual cycle and causes of low and high levels.
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1 May 202489 Vital capacity of lungs (VC) in Parameters
Vital capacity: lung volumes, lower limit of normal, restrictive and neuromuscular causes of reduced VC.
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30 April 202464 71 Myocardial blood flow. in Parameters
Myocardial (coronary) blood flow: about 4% of cardiac output, regulation, coronary reserve and ischaemia.
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30 April 202465 72 Muscular blood flow in Parameters
Skeletal muscle blood flow: about 20% of cardiac output at rest, exercise hyperaemia and peripheral artery disease.
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30 April 202466 73 Cerebral blood flow in Parameters
Cerebral blood flow: about 13–15% of cardiac output, autoregulation, the role of CO₂ and stroke.
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30 April 202467 74 Hepatoportal blood flow in Parameters
Hepatoportal blood flow: dual blood supply of the liver, the hepatic arterial buffer response and portal hypertension.
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30 April 202468 75 Nephritic blood flow in Parameters
Renal blood flow: about 20% of cardiac output, glomerular filtration, autoregulation and acute kidney injury.
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30 April 202469 76 Skin blood flow in Parameters
Skin blood flow: role in temperature regulation, sympathetic control, heat illness and Raynaud phenomenon.
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30 April 202470 77 Blood flow of other organs in Parameters
Blood flow of other tissues: bone, fat, glands and connective tissue, calculated as the remainder of cardiac output.
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30 April 202422-25 AST, ALT in Parameters
AST and ALT: liver enzymes, degrees of elevation and causes (fatty liver, hepatitis, alcohol, medicines), when to seek care.
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30 April 202426 De Ritis ratio (ASTALT) in Parameters
De Ritis ratio AST/ALT: what values below 1 and above 2 suggest about the type of liver injury.
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30 April 202427-29 Bilirubin in Parameters
Bilirubin: total, direct and indirect; jaundice, Gilbert syndrome, haemolysis, liver disease and bile duct obstruction.
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30 April 202430 Protein, Total in Parameters
Total protein: albumin and globulins, causes of low and high values, when protein electrophoresis is needed.
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30 April 202486 Fibrinogen in Parameters
Fibrinogen: clotting factor I and acute-phase protein, normal range, causes of low and high levels.
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29 April 202452 Acetylcholinesterase of erythrocytes (AChE) in Parameters
Erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase: red cell enzyme, marker of organophosphate exposure and its interpretation.
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29 April 202455 Creatine kinase MM (CK-MM) in Parameters
Creatine kinase MM: skeletal muscle isoenzyme, causes of raised CK, rhabdomyolysis and statins.
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29 April 202456 Creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) in Parameters
Creatine kinase MB: cardiac isoenzyme, time course after myocardial infarction and comparison with troponin.
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29 April 202457 Comprehensive cell mitosis regulation factor in Parameters
Comprehensive cell mitosis regulation factor: a computed index named after the cyclin B–CDK1 mitosis-promoting factor; cell-cycle biology, conventional range and limits of interpretation.
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29 April 202458 Plasma density in Parameters
Blood and plasma density: typical values, units used in this application, measurement and causes of haemodilution and haemoconcentration.
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29 April 202459 Volume of circulatory blood in Parameters
Circulating blood volume: normal values per kilogram, the Nadler formula, indicator dilution and causes of hypovolaemia.
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29 April 202460 Cardiac output in Parameters
Cardiac output: stroke volume × heart rate, normal values, thermodilution and Fick methods, low and high output states.
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29 April 202461 Oxygenation velocity of RBC in Parameters
Red cell oxygenation rate: oxygen uptake in lung capillaries, the haemoglobin–oxygen dissociation curve and what slows oxygenation.
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29 April 202462 Effective diffusion area of the erythrocyte flow (EPR) in Parameters
Effective diffusion area of the erythrocyte flow (EPR, m²/min): red cell membrane surface passing through the lungs per minute, how it is calculated and its clinical significance.
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28 April 202451 Acetylcholine (ACh) in Parameters
Acetylcholine: neurotransmitter of muscles and the parasympathetic system, Alzheimer disease and myasthenia gravis.
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28 April 202454 Tyrosine in Parameters
Tyrosine: amino acid precursor of catecholamines, thyroid hormones and melanin; PKU and tyrosinaemias.
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28 April 202463 Deficit of circulatory blood in Parameters
Circulating blood volume deficit: ATLS classes of haemorrhage, causes of hypovolaemia and the body’s response.
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27 April 202450 Amylase in Parameters
Amylase: pancreatic and salivary enzyme, acute pancreatitis criteria and other causes of raised amylase.
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26 April 20247 Eosinophils. in Parameters
Eosinophils — allergy, parasites, drug reactions; grades of eosinophilia and hypereosinophilia and organ risks.
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26 April 2024138 Colloid-Osmotic Pressure (COP) in Parameters
Colloid osmotic pressure: albumin, Starling forces, the revised Starling principle and causes of oedema.
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26 April 202444-46 Water metabolism in Parameters
Water metabolism: total, intracellular and extracellular body water, measurement, dehydration and fluid excess.
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26 April 202487 Prothrombin index in Parameters
Prothrombin time, prothrombin index and INR: normal values, warfarin targets and causes of prolonged clotting.
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25 April 2024124 Cystatin C (CysC). mgl in Parameters
Cystatin C: kidney filtration marker, eGFR equations, KDIGO GFR categories and non-renal influences.
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25 April 20243 Lymphocytes. LYMPH in Parameters
Lymphocytes — B, T and NK cells of adaptive immunity: percentage vs absolute count, causes of lymphocytosis and lymphopenia.
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25 April 20248 Monocytes.MONO in Parameters
Monocytes — precursors of tissue macrophages: causes of monocytosis, when persistent values need a haematologist.
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23 April 2024TIMI in Parameters
TIMI risk index for myocardial infarction: formula from heart rate, age and systolic pressure, and prediction of 30-day mortality.
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22 April 2024132 Atherogenic coefficient (AC) in Parameters
Atherogenic coefficient (TC − HDL-C)/HDL-C: calculation, conventional norm below 3, relation to non-HDL cholesterol and the Castelli index.
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22 April 2024SH groups in Parameters
SH (thiol) groups: glutathione and protein thiols, thiol/disulfide balance and oxidative stress.
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21 April 202420 Basal pressure of Oddis sphincter mm Hg in Parameters
Basal pressure of the sphincter of Oddi: manometry, the 40 mmHg threshold and sphincter of Oddi dysfunction.
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18 April 2024135 Atherogenic index of plasma (AIP) in Parameters
Atherogenic index of plasma, log(TG/HDL-C): calculation, proposed risk categories and link with small dense LDL.
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7 August 2022RSA in Parameters
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia: breathing-related heart rate changes and vagal tone.
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11 February 2020MAP in Parameters
Mean arterial pressure: formula, normal range, invasive measurement and the 65 mmHg target in shock.
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11 February 2020MCV in Parameters
MCV — mean red cell volume (80–100 fL): how it classifies anaemia into microcytic, normocytic and macrocytic, and the causes of each.
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11 February 2020MCH in Parameters
MCH — mean haemoglobin per red cell (27–31 pg): hypochromia, high values and laboratory artefacts.
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11 February 2020MCHC in Parameters
MCHC — mean haemoglobin concentration in red cells (32–36 g/dL): low in iron deficiency, high in spherocytosis or artefact.
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10 July 2019Ellipse in Parameters
Poincare plot ellipse area S = pi SD1 SD2: overall heart rate variability.
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7 July 2019PRi in Parameters
PR interval: normal 120–200 ms, first-degree and Wenckebach AV block, short PR and WPW pattern.
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7 July 2019QRSc in Parameters
QRS complex: ventricular depolarisation, normal width, bundle branch blocks and other causes of a wide QRS.
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7 July 2019QTi in Parameters
QT interval: heart-rate correction, normal and prolonged QTc, causes of long and short QT and torsade risk.
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7 July 2019STs in Parameters
ST segment: J point, ischaemic ST elevation and depression thresholds and other causes of ST changes.
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7 July 2019STi in Parameters
ST (JT) interval: from the J point to the end of T, QT minus QRS, and its use when the QRS is wide.
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7 July 2019Tw in Parameters
T wave: ventricular repolarisation, normal direction by lead, peaked, inverted and flat T waves and alternans.
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7 July 2019QTc in Parameters
QTc: heart-rate corrected QT interval, correction formulas, normal values and the risks of long and short QT.
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7 July 2019CD in Parameters
Correlation dimension D2: complexity of heart-rhythm regulation.
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6 July 2019MTw in Parameters
T-wave morphology analysis: TCRT, morphology dispersion and PCA ratio for repolarisation and risk assessment.
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6 July 2019K in Parameters
Potassium: normal 3.5–5.0 mmol/L; causes and dangers of hypo- and hyperkalaemia, ECG effects and false results.
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6 July 2019Na in Parameters
Sodium: normal 135–145 mmol/L; hyponatraemia grades and causes, hypernatraemia and why correction must be gradual.
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6 July 2019Ca in Parameters
Calcium: total and ionised calcium, albumin correction, causes of hyper- and hypocalcaemia and when to seek help.
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2 July 2019CHOL in Parameters
Total cholesterol: how cholesterol travels in lipoproteins, reference values, causes of high and low levels, familial hypercholesterolaemia.
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2 July 2019BCI in Parameters
Blood carbohydrate index: glucose tolerance indicator, normal range 55.2-76.8, risks of high and low values.
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2 July 2019RRI in Parameters
RR intervals: the beat-to-beat series behind heart rate variability, measurement and artefacts.
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2 July 2019PW in Parameters
P wave: atrial depolarisation, normal duration and amplitude, signs of atrial enlargement and absent P waves.
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2 July 2019PRs in Parameters
PR segment: AV-node delay, the ECG baseline and PR depression in acute pericarditis.
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1 July 2019VLF in Parameters
VLF power: very slow heart rate oscillations, slow regulation and prognosis.
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1 July 2019LF in Parameters
LF power: 0.1 Hz baroreflex oscillations and mixed autonomic modulation.
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1 July 2019HF in Parameters
HF power: respiratory sinus arrhythmia and vagal activity.
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1 July 2019TP in Parameters
Total power: overall spectral heart rate variability and the frequency bands VLF, LF and HF.
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1 July 2019LDL-C in Parameters
LDL cholesterol: how LDL causes atherosclerosis, ESC/EAS targets by cardiovascular risk, Friedewald formula and treatment.
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1 July 2019HDL-C in Parameters
HDL cholesterol: reverse cholesterol transport, risk thresholds for men and women, why very high HDL is not always protective.
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30 June 2019TG in Parameters
Triglycerides: desirable levels, fasting vs non-fasting tests, causes of hypertriglyceridaemia, cardiovascular and pancreatitis risk.
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30 June 2019SE in Parameters
Sample entropy: regularity and complexity of the heartbeat series.
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29 June 2019LFHF in Parameters
LF/HF ratio: shape of the heart rate spectrum and limits of the sympatho-vagal balance concept.
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24 June 2019MeanRR in Parameters
Mean RR interval: average time between heartbeats and its relation to heart rate.
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24 June 2019MinRR in Parameters
Minimum RR interval: shortest beat-to-beat interval and highest instantaneous heart rate.
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24 June 2019MaxRR in Parameters
Maximum RR interval: longest beat-to-beat interval, vagal slowing and pauses.
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24 June 2019SD1 in Parameters
SD1: Poincare plot width, short-term vagal variability (RMSSD/sqrt2).
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24 June 2019SD2 in Parameters
SD2: Poincare plot length, long-term overall heart rate variability.
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24 June 2019nLF in Parameters
Normalised LF power (LF n.u.): relative share of low-frequency oscillations.
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24 June 2019nHF in Parameters
Normalised HF power (HF n.u.): relative share of respiratory vagal oscillations.
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14 June 2019DFA1 in Parameters
DFA alpha1: short-term fractal correlations, prognosis at rest and aerobic threshold during exercise.
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11 June 2019HRVti in Parameters
HRV triangular index: geometric measure of overall variability in 24-hour recordings.
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11 June 2019sdHR in Parameters
Standard deviation of heart rate: overall heart rate variability in beats per minute.
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11 June 2019RMSSD in Parameters
RMSSD: main time-domain index of vagal activity, norms and interpretation.
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11 June 2019pNN50 in Parameters
pNN50: percentage of successive NN intervals differing by more than 50 ms.
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5 June 2019AR index in Parameters
AR, autonomic rate index 1/(Mo x dX): meaning, calculation and interpretation.
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5 June 2019AB index in Parameters
AB, autonomic balance index (AMo/dX): balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation.
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5 June 2019SER index in Parameters
SER, coefficient of variation CV = SDNN/mean NN x 100%: relative heart rate variability.
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5 June 2019ASER index in Parameters
ASER, amplitude of the mode (AMo): conditional indicator of sympathetic activity.
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5 June 2019FCS index in Parameters
FCS, mode (Mo): the most probable level of functioning of the cardiovascular system.
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5 June 2019MARI in Parameters
MARI, mean absolute difference of successive RR intervals: beat-to-beat vagal variability.
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5 June 2019TINN in Parameters
TINN: width of the triangular interpolation of the NN interval histogram.
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4 June 2019SDNN in Parameters
SDNN: the main measure of heart rate variability, its norms by recording length and age, and what low values mean.
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4 June 2019ARP index in Parameters
ARP, index of adequacy of regulatory processes (AMo/Mo): meaning, calculation and interpretation.
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3 June 2019Hct in Parameters
Haematocrit: the share of blood volume made up of red cells, its norms, causes of low and high values and the risk of thick blood.
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2 June 2019SI in Parameters
Baevsky stress index: degree of centralisation of heart-rhythm control, calculation, norms and stress levels.
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2 June 2019BMr in Parameters
Basal metabolic rate: components of daily energy expenditure, the Mifflin–St Jeor equation and factors that change BMR.
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2 June 2019REE in Parameters
Resting energy expenditure: indirect calorimetry, the Weir equation, respiratory quotient and clinical significance.
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2 June 2019SBP in Parameters
Systolic blood pressure: ESC 2024 categories, correct measurement, causes of high and low values and when to seek care.
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2 June 2019DBP in Parameters
Diastolic blood pressure: ESC 2024 categories, pulse pressure, causes of high values and warning signs.
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2 June 2019HGB in Parameters
Haemoglobin: oxygen transport, reference ranges, causes and risks of anaemia and erythrocytosis.
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2 June 2019PLT in Parameters
Platelets: how they stop bleeding, normal counts, causes and dangers of thrombocytopenia and thrombocytosis.
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2 June 2019RBC in Parameters
Red blood cell count: life cycle of erythrocytes, red cell indices and what low or high counts mean.
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2 June 2019WBC in Parameters
White blood cell count: types of leukocytes, the differential, causes of leukocytosis and neutropenia and warning signs.
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1 June 2019BMI in Parameters
Body mass index: WHO categories, Asian cut-offs, limitations and health risks of low and high BMI.
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31 May 2019HI in Parameters
Health index: an integral indicator from 1 to 100 that changes in real time.
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30 May 2019HR in Parameters
Heart rate: regulation, normal values, tachycardia, bradycardia and cardiovascular risk.
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14 May 20191.11 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 1-1-1: major Q wave (Q/R ≥ 1/3, Q ≥ 0.03 s), sign of previous myocardial infarction.
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14 May 20191.12 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 1-1-2: major Q wave of 0.04 s or more.
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14 May 20191.21 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 1-2-1: moderate Q wave (Q/R ≥ 1/3, Q 0.02–0.03 s).
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14 May 20191.22 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 1-2-2: moderate Q wave of 0.03–0.04 s.
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14 May 20191.31 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 1-3-1: minor (equivocal) Q wave.
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14 May 20191.41 in ECG findings
Persistent supraventricular rhythm / tachycardia (MC 8-4-1).
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14 May 20191.42 in ECG findings
Intermittent (paroxysmal) supraventricular tachycardia (MC 8-4-2).
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14 May 20192.1 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 2-1: QRS axis between −30° and −90°; causes (left anterior fascicular block, LVH, inferior MI) and when it matters.
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14 May 20193.1 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 3-1: tall left-sided R waves (V5/V6 > 26 mm, limb leads > 20 mm, aVL > 12 mm) — the main ECG sign of left ventricular hypertrophy.
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14 May 20193.1 in ECG findings
Novacode 3.1: complete left bundle branch block — QRS ≥ 120 ms, broad notched R in I, aVL, V5–V6; causes, risks and why it needs evaluation.
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14 May 20193.11 in ECG findings
LBBB with signs of myocardial infarction: why LBBB masks infarction and how the Sgarbossa criteria help recognise it.
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14 May 20193.2 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 3-2: dominant R wave in V1 (R ≥ 5 mm, R/S ≥ 1) suggesting right ventricular hypertrophy; other causes to exclude.
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14 May 20193.21 in ECG findings
Novacode 3.2: complete right bundle branch block — QRS ≥ 120 ms, rSR′ in V1–V2, wide S in I and V6; when it is benign and when it needs evaluation.
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14 May 20193.3 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 3-3: borderline left R voltage (lead I R 15–20 mm or R V5/V6 + S V1 > 35 mm) — a grey-zone finding between normal and LVH.
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14 May 20193.31 in ECG findings
Novacode 3.3: non-specific intraventricular conduction delay — QRS > 110 ms without bundle branch block morphology; causes and prognosis.
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14 May 20193.41 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 3-4: combined left and right high R waves suggesting biventricular hypertrophy, with right ventricular involvement.
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14 May 20193.42 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 3-4 with left ventricular predominance and strain: high R voltage with ST depression and T inversion — a marker of advanced hypertrophy.
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14 May 20194.11 in ECG findings
Novacode 4: marked QT prolongation (QTc ≥ 500 ms) — risk of torsade de pointes, drug and electrolyte causes, congenital long QT.
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14 May 20194.11 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 4-1-1: horizontal or down-sloping ST depression ≥ 2 mm — a major ECG sign of myocardial ischaemia.
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14 May 20194.12 in ECG findings
Novacode 4: borderline QT prolongation (QTc ≥ 450 ms men / ≥ 460 ms women, < 500 ms) — causes and medication safety.
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14 May 20194.12 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 4-1-2: horizontal or down-sloping ST depression 1–2 mm — causes, ischaemia and next steps.
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14 May 20194.2 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 4-2: mild horizontal or down-sloping ST depression 0.5–1 mm — when a small change matters.
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14 May 20194.3 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 4-3: down-sloping ST without J depression, T nadir ≥ 0.5 mm below baseline — a minor repolarisation change.
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14 May 20194.4 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 4-4: J-point depression ≥ 1 mm with up-sloping ST — usually less specific, but watch for the de Winter pattern.
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14 May 20195.1 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 5-1: deep T-wave inversion ≥ 5 mm — ischaemia, Wellens pattern, cardiomyopathy and other causes; when to seek urgent care.
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14 May 20195.1 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.1: Q-wave myocardial infarction with major Q waves — how Novacode scores Q waves and what a prior infarction means.
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14 May 20195.2 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 5-2: moderate T-wave inversion 1–5 mm — causes, normal variants and when it needs evaluation.
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14 May 20195.2 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.2: Q-wave myocardial infarction with moderate Q waves and ST-T changes — why the combination matters.
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14 May 20195.3 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 5-3: flat, shallow negative or biphasic T wave — a minor repolarisation change and its common causes.
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14 May 20195.3 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.3: possible myocardial infarction with moderate Q waves and no major ST-T changes — other causes and confirmation.
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14 May 20195.4 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 5-4: low positive T wave (T/R < 1/20) — the mildest T-wave item and what it may mean.
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14 May 20195.4 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.4: possible myocardial infarction with minor Q waves and ST-T changes — interpretation and next steps.
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14 May 20195.5 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.5: isolated major ST depression without Q waves or LVH — a marker of myocardial ischaemia.
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14 May 20195.6 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.6: isolated major T-wave inversion without Q waves or LVH — ischaemia, cardiomyopathy and other causes.
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14 May 20195.7 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.7: minor Q waves without ST-T changes — usually benign, when they matter.
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14 May 20195.8 in ECG findings
Novacode 5.8: minor ST-T abnormalities — common, often non-specific, linked to cardiovascular risk factors.
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14 May 20196.3 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 6-3: PR interval ≥ 220 ms (first-degree AV block) — causes, long-term risks and when to worry.
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14 May 20196.41 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 6-4-1: WPW pattern — short PR, delta wave, risks of tachycardia and atrial fibrillation, and ablation.
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14 May 20196.5 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 6-5: short PR interval without delta wave — usually a normal variant; how it differs from WPW.
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14 May 20196.6 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 6-6: intermittent aberrant AV conduction — wide supraventricular beats and how they are told apart from ventricular beats.
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14 May 20197.11 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 7-1-1: complete left bundle branch block — criteria, why other codes are suppressed, causes and evaluation.
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14 May 20197.21 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 7-2-1: complete right bundle branch block — criteria, related codes and when it matters.
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14 May 20197.4 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 7-4: non-specific intraventricular block with QRS ≥ 120 ms — causes and prognosis.
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14 May 20197.6 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 7-6: left anterior fascicular block — axis −45° to −90°, qR in aVL; causes and significance.
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14 May 20197.7 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 7-7: left posterior fascicular block — right axis deviation after excluding other causes; significance.
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14 May 20198.7 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 8-7: sinus tachycardia above 100/min — physiological and disease-related causes and when to seek care.
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14 May 20198.8 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 8-8: sinus bradycardia below 50/min — often normal in athletes; medicines, sinus node disease and symptoms.
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14 May 20199.1 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 9-1: low QRS voltage — pericardial effusion, lung disease, amyloidosis and other causes.
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14 May 20199.2 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 9-2: ST-segment elevation — STEMI criteria, pericarditis, early repolarisation and other causes; emergency signs.
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14 May 20199.5 in ECG findings
Minnesota Code 9-5: tall T waves over 12 mm — hyperkalaemia, hyperacute infarction and benign variants.
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30 March 2019I21 in Pathologies
Acute myocardial infarction (I21): STEMI and NSTEMI, symptoms, diagnosis with ECG and troponin, treatment and complications.
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24 March 2019I24 in Pathologies
Other acute ischaemic heart disease (I24): coronary thrombosis without infarction, Dressler syndrome, diagnosis and prevention.
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24 March 2019I44.0 in Pathologies
First-degree AV block (I44.0): PR over 200 ms, causes, assessment and when treatment is needed.
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24 March 2019I44.4 in Pathologies
Left anterior fascicular block (I44.4): left axis deviation, causes, bifascicular block and management.
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24 March 2019I44.7 in Pathologies
Left bundle branch block (I44.7): ECG criteria, causes, heart failure and CRT, and LBBB in myocardial infarction.
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24 March 2019I45.1 in Pathologies
Right bundle branch block (I45.1): rsR′ pattern, causes, significance and differentiation from Brugada syndrome.
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23 March 2019I48 in Pathologies
Atrial fibrillation and flutter (I48): ECG, causes, stroke risk, CHA₂DS₂-VA and the AF-CARE approach.
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23 March 2019I45.6 in Pathologies
Pre-excitation syndrome (I45.6): WPW, delta wave, tachycardias, dangerous pre-excited AF and catheter ablation.
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23 March 2019I45.81 in Pathologies
Long QT syndrome (I45.81): congenital and acquired forms, genetic types, diagnosis and treatment.
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23 March 2019I45.9 in Pathologies
Conduction disorders (I45.9): sinus node dysfunction, degrees of AV block, bundle branch blocks and pacemaker indications.
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23 March 2019R00 in Pathologies
Tachycardia (R00): sinus, supraventricular and ventricular tachycardias, diagnosis and treatment.
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23 March 2019R00.1 in Pathologies
Bradycardia (R00.1): normal slow heart rate, causes, sinus node disease, AV block and pacemakers.
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23 March 2019R94.31 in Pathologies
Abnormal ECG (R94.31): what the ECG shows, common abnormal findings and what happens next.
233 articles in total.